THE BOOK OF
PSALMS
The Lord Jesus and the apostles loved the book of Psalms and quoted from it; beyond that, they lived out of it. These ancient prayers and praises of Israel are also God’s inspired word. The psalms provide a bridge to cross between the Old and New Testaments, and the themes addressed in the psalms find further development in the NT. Jesus connects with the dynasty of David in its mission, its disappointments, and its failures. Where David’s dynasty has failed, Jesus gives hope. His sinlessness, his identification with the suffering of the members of David’s dynasty, his perfect obedience, and his exaltation open up new perspectives on the many questions raised in the Psalter. Yet we are still living by faith; the hope of the book of Psalms, that God’s people will completely fulfill his purposes and that all nations will submit to the Messiah, still remains for the future (see 1 Cor 15:25-27).
The psalms, like all Scripture, are inspired and given by God (2 Tim 3:16). And yet, each psalm originated with a human author as a prayer or praise to the Lord. The psalms are diverse, composed as the responses of God’s people to him. The psalms include laments, psalms of praise, wisdom, thanksgiving, reflections on God’s mighty acts, celebrations of God’s revelation, and worship.
The book of Psalms reflects a long process of collection. For a thousand years, poets wrote these poems while people recited and collected them. The Temple liturgy encouraged both the collection and the writing of psalms. Gradually editors incorporated smaller collections into larger collections, shaping five collections into the one book of Psalms.
The first two psalms serve as an introduction to the entire Psalter (the book of Psalms). Ps 1 introduces the Lord’s instruction in wisdom, while Ps 2 introduces God’s rule over a rebellious, sinful world. In Ps 1, the person of God’s choice is godly and wise, delights in God, lives by divine instruction, and is not influenced by evildoers. Ps 2 speaks of the rebellion of the nations and of the wicked, the judgment of rebellious nations, and the protection of the godly.
Reading Ps 1 in the context of the entire Psalter raises three questions: (1) Is there forgiveness for sins? (2) Why do the godly suffer? and (3) Why do the wicked prosper? Reading Ps 2 in the context of the Psalter raises two similar questions: (1) Why do the nations prosper? and (2) Why were the kings of David’s line not victorious? The psalmists wrestle with these questions and offer different perspectives. Some of the poets quietly accept their problems, while others wrestle with God, question him, or become exasperated. New questions and issues develop out of their dialogues with God.
The process of editing the Psalter into one book took place over time and was completed following the exile to Babylon. There are several markers of editorial activity:
1. The editors placed Ps 1 and Ps 2 as an introduction to the whole book of Psalms. Both psalms give an idealized portrayal: Ps 1 is a portrayal of the ideal godly person who lives by God’s instruction. Ps 2 portrays the Messiah, the ideal king of Israel. The rest of the Psalter develops and deepens these portrayals, while at the same time expressing how neither the people of God nor their king were able to fulfill God’s ideals and bring about the happiness and peace of God’s kingdom. The Psalter therefore testifies to Jesus as the ideal godly man and king of Israel, the Messiah who alone has pleased God and by whom alone redemption, happiness, and peace are secure.
2. Individual psalms were collected in units. The editors arranged these smaller groupings of psalms into five larger collections: Book One (Pss 1–41, with a doxology and double Amen in Ps 41:13), Book Two (Pss 42–72, with a doxology and double Amen in Ps 72:19), Book Three (Pss 73–89, with a doxology and double Amen in Ps 89:52), Book Four (Pss 90–106, with a doxology and Amen in Ps 106:48), and Book Five (Pss 107–150, without a doxology).
3. Books One (Pss 1–41) and Two (Pss 42–72) form the first stage of the collection. The shift from David (Pss 3–32; 34:1–41:13) in Book One to collections of psalms in Book Two (the sons of Korah, Pss 42–49; Asaph, Ps 50; David, Pss 51–65; 68:1–70:5; Solomon, Ps 72) reveals a thematic shift from David as the sole model and teacher to other perspectives opened by these psalms. At the end of Book Two, the editor comments, “This ends the prayers of David son of Jesse” (Ps 72:20). This comment remained in place even when Books Three, Four, and Five (with additional psalms of David) were added to the collection.
4. The addition of Book Three (Pss 73–89) marks the second stage. Book Three shares with Book Two its preference of the name Elohim for God (Pss 42–83) and its diversity of collections (Asaph, Pss 73–83; sons of Korah, Pss 84–85; 87:1–88:18; David, Ps 86). Ps 73 breaks the spell cast by the magnificent vision of the messianic kingdom in Ps 72, as it questions God’s justice and power. This issue comes to a head again in Ps 89, the last psalm of Book Three.
5. The psalms of Book Four (Pss 90–106) wrestle with questions raised at the time of the Exile, when it seemed that God’s covenant with David had been dissolved (see Ps 89). Several psalms encourage individual growth in character and godliness (Pss 91–92) in response to the crisis. Most psalms in this collection present God as the true and faithful king whose kingdom extends to every part of creation (Pss 93–100). He still loves the people, the flock of his pasture (Ps 100), but they have to listen to him (Ps 95, 100). He is the source of forgiveness, and his compassion assures the exilic community that the Lord still cares for his people. The review of redemptive history from creation to the Exile (Pss 104–106) explains both God’s wisdom and Israel’s folly as a framework for understanding the Exile. The benediction of Ps 106:48 is included in 1 Chr 16:36 and might indicate that Book Four was completed in the postexilic era (when Chronicles was compiled).
6. Book Five (Pss 107–150) was then added to the Psalter. It includes a number of smaller collections: the Egyptian Hallel (Pss 111–118), including three hallelujah hymns (Pss 111–113) and the Great Hallel (Pss 114–118), the Torah psalm (Ps 119), the Songs of Ascents (Pss 120–134), eight psalms of David (Pss 138–145), and five concluding hallelujah hymns (Pss 146–150). Book Five sets out the thematic progression of affliction, lament, God’s rescue, and praise. The opening psalm (Ps 107) begins this pattern, and its final verse (Ps 107:43) points to the importance of wisdom in discerning God’s ways. Psalm 119, the longest psalm, celebrates the wisdom of God and the word of God. The Lord’s historic care for Israel in the wilderness (Pss 114–118; 135:1–136:26) prepares exilic and postexilic Israel to read David’s final prayers (Pss 138–145) in a new way: David looks forward to the full coming of God’s kingdom (Ps 145). The hallelujah psalms affirm the truthfulness of this hope (Pss 146–150).
7. Additions appear to have been made to already-existing psalms. This may explain the prayer for the restoration of Zion (Ps 51:18-19) and for God’s blessing on Jerusalem (Ps 69:34-36). Changes in the circumstances of God’s people may have occasioned the addition of new lines in each case.
8. The available manuscripts reveal some flexibility in the organization and titles of the psalms. Both the Hebrew and Greek editions of the Psalter contain 150 psalms, but with differing divisions and numbering as well as differences regarding which psalms have titles. The Greek text combines both Pss 9–10 and Pss 114–115 into one psalm each, but it splits both Ps 116 and Ps 147 into two. Differences between the Hebrew and English numbering are indicated in the notes.
By the time of Jesus Christ, the Psalter was well known as the book of Psalms (Luke 20:42; Acts 1:20). It was part of the third section of the Hebrew canon, called the Writings (Luke 24:44; see Old Testament Introduction, “The Canon of the Old Testament”).
Many of the psalms are associated with David, but not all of them; less than half (seventy-three of them) are connected with him. Others are connected with Asaph (Ps 50, 73-83), the sons of Korah (Pss 42–49, 84-85, 87), Solomon (Ps 72, 127), Heman (Ps 88), Ethan (Ps 89), and Moses (Ps 90).
Of the 116 psalms with a title (see “Psalm Titles”), most identify a person. The person named may be the author, but not necessarily. The Hebrew preposition le before the name (often translated “of”) can mean “for,” “dedicated to,” “concerning,” “to,” or “by.” So, ledawid (often translated “of David”) could be interpreted as “for David,” “dedicated to David,” “concerning David,” or “by David.” While many psalms “of David” may have been written by him, there are several reasons for caution. The titles occasionally have two names, such as David and Jeduthun or Asaph (Ps 39, 62, 77). It is possible that the other individual was the actual author of the psalm. Furthermore, the psalms whose titles connect them with an episode of David’s life (Ps 3, 7, 18, 34, 51, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 63, 142) provide little or no specific connection with those episodes. For example, the title in Ps 51 connects the psalm with David’s sin and Nathan’s rebuke. The psalm speaks of sin, forgiveness, and a broken spirit, but any mention of the specifics of the sin is notoriously absent. In addition, several psalms “of David” seem to assume the existence of the Temple, which was not constructed until after David’s death (see Ps 5:7; 122:TITLE; Ps 138:2). Similarly, the title of Ps 30 connects David with the dedication of the Temple, and Ps 69 does not seem to fit with what is known of David’s life. Finally, some textual traditions vary in the mention of David in the heading (e.g., Ps 122, 124). It is possible, therefore, that ledawid should be understood in many cases as meaning “for/dedicated to/concerning David” rather than “by David.” Such psalms evoke his persona as the chief representative of the dynasty of David without implying that he himself was the author of the psalm. Still, there are many psalms that could have been authored by David himself.
The title Psalms for the collection comes from the Greek word psalmos (“song”; see Luke 24:44; 20:42), which translates the Hebrew mizmor, a word frequently found in the titles of individual psalms (e.g., see Ps 3:TITLE, “psalm”). The word mizmor is related to a verb meaning “to play a stringed instrument.” The psalms were originally accompanied by instruments and were part of the oral tradition of Israel before they were collected into groupings. The Hebrew title of the Psalter is tehillim (“praises”), a word that is related to the expression hallelujah (“praise Yahweh”).
Psalm Titles. The psalm titles, or short superscriptions accompanying most of the psalms, give information such as the author (see above), the type of psalm (e.g., song, prayer), a musical notation, a notation on the use of the psalm, a historical context, or a dedication. Much of the information is not well understood. As a result, many scholars do not place much emphasis on the psalm titles in the interpretation of the psalms.
In the Hebrew text, the psalm titles are typically numbered as verse 1. As a result, the verse numbers through the entire psalm differ from the numbers in the NLT and most English translations.
Interlude (Hebrew Selah). This word is found seventy-one times in the book of Psalms. The meaning of the word is uncertain, though it is probably a musical or literary term. In the NLT it is consistently rendered Interlude.
Groupings of the Psalms. The psalms can be grouped in a number of ways:
• By the names they use for God: Yahweh (“the LORD,” Pss 1–41) and Elohim (“God,” Pss 42–72).
• By the names in the titles: David (Pss 3–32; 34:1–41:13, etc.), the sons of Korah (Pss 42–49; 84:1–85:13; 87:1–88:18), and Asaph (Ps 50, 73-83).
• By genre (see below).
• Many of the psalms are in collections within the Psalter: e.g., the Songs of Ascents (Pss 120–134). Other collections were recognized in Jewish tradition, such as the Egyptian Hallel (Pss 113–118) and the hallelujah hymns (Pss 146–150).
• By thematic connections, such as God’s kingship (Pss 93–100), or the storyline from creation to the Exile (Pss 104–106).
Genres of the Psalms. The psalm titles often designate the genre of a psalm. The most frequent genre designation in a psalm’s title is “psalm” (Hebrew mizmor), a song originally accompanied by stringed instruments. Less frequent are the words maskil (“psalm, a chant”: Ps 32, 42, 44-45, 52-55, 74, 88, 89), miktam (“psalm, a chant”: Ps 16, 56-60), shir (“song”: Ps 45, 120-135), shiggayon (“psalm,” a generic or musical term: Ps 7), tepillah (“prayer”: Ps 17, 86, 90) and tehillah (“psalm of praise”: Ps 145), higgayon (“meditation,” meaning unknown: Ps 9:16), and todah (psalm of thanksgiving: Ps 100).
In addition to the genre identifications that are found in the Hebrew text, the psalms may also be divided into three main categories:
1.Wisdom or instructional psalms (Ps 1, 15, 24, 33, 34, 37, 73, 90, 107);
2.Psalms of lament (most psalms in books I—III), which can be subdivided into individual laments and community laments;
3.Hymns of praise or thanksgiving (Ps 8, 19, 29, 65, 67, 114), which can similarly be divided into individual and community hymns.
The psalms of praise include several subgenres, including “royal” psalms about the king (Ps 2, 45, 72, 89, 110); psalms ascribing kingship to the Lord (Ps 93, 95-99); hymns about creation (Ps 19, 29, 104); and hymns about Zion (Ps 46, 48, 84, 87).
Another way of reading the psalms is based on the movement in many psalms from instruction to a problem and from a problem to a renewal in commitment and character. The Psalter as a collection of five books is largely instructional in nature. It is “instruction” (torah, “law,” Ps 1:2) and has the purpose of teaching God’s people how to live.
THE PSALMS IN ISRAEL’S WORSHIP
The collection of 150 lyric poems known as the Psalter contains much information on music-making in ancient Israel. The majority of psalms are songs of praise, thanksgiving, prayer, and repentance. There are also historic odes that relate great national events (for example, Ps 30, “a song at the dedication of the Temple,” and Ps 137, which portrays the sufferings of the Jews in captivity). Such psalms played a role in the life of the community; however, the exact nature of that role is uncertain.
The psalms provide windows into the souls of the ancient saints who wrote them. Their theological reflections are not easy or simple-minded, but the psalmists’ faith, when tried, is purified. The psalms model depth of character, wisdom, honesty, and authenticity. They prepare God’s people for the coming of Jesus Christ as the perfect Adam (human) and as the king, the descendant of David who has absolute integrity.
The prayers in the Psalter are more than models to be imitated: They are God’s instructions for righteous living, part of his torah (“instruction”; see Ps 1, 19, 119). God teaches who he is, what he has done, and what he expects from his people. The psalms are God-centered, instructing God’s people to be like God, to receive his correction, and to discern error in themselves. Through the psalms, God encourages his people individually and as communities to worship him vibrantly. The psalms and their musical accompaniments bear witness about God to the world.
The psalmists reflected on the transitory nature of life, on suffering, and on the many kinds of adversity that human beings experience. As the psalmists faced alienation and pain, they longed for God’s presence, provision, and protection (e.g., Ps 23), and for a lasting glory. Even the psalms connected with David often reveal a humble, rather than a victorious, David—a humiliated David more often than a glorious and royal David. The psalmists lived in a world full of alienation, and they longed for redemption. They experienced shame, and they trusted in the Lord to vindicate them with his glorious presence.
The Psalter illustrates the failures of Israel and of David’s dynasty. The best of the godly Israelites and of the Davidic kings were unable to bring in the condition of happiness and peace that Ps 1 and 2 speak of (see also Ps 72). The psalms are God’s exhortation to each person to cultivate wisdom, to trust in him, to live by grace, and to have hope in the coming one who would bring God’s blessings to a needy world.
Jesus and the apostles understood Jesus’ life and ministry in light of the psalms (see Matt 13:34-35; 21:16, 42; 23:39; John 2:17; 15:25; 19:24, 28, 36; Acts 2:22-35; 4:11; 13:32-38; Rom 15:3; 1 Cor 15:25-27; Eph 4:7-10; 1 Pet 2:7). Jesus entered the world of humans and lived out the patterns found in the psalms, including humiliation, suffering, death, vindication, and glory. He is the only human being who has completely pleased God (Ps 1). He is the Messiah and King (Ps 2) who has become our means of redemption, happiness, and peace.