THE BOOK OF
DEUTERONOMY
God first revealed Israel’s national “constitution” to Moses at Sinai (Exod 20–23). The great leader Moses was now about to die. God had appointed a younger man, Joshua, to replace Moses, but he was not yet fully tested. Israel had been rescued from slavery in Egypt and miraculously preserved through forty years of wandering in the wilderness. The Israelites now stood on the verge of the land promised to them, but it was inhabited by powerful and hostile enemies. Although God had been faithful in the past, the future seemed uncertain. Deuteronomy is the story of Israel’s renewed covenant with God—a covenant that would guide Israel to God’s blessings throughout the remainder of their history as a nation.
Forty years after their exodus from Egypt, the Israelites arrived at the plains of Moab, just across the Jordan River from Jericho. After four decades of wandering, they were poised to cross the Jordan, conquer the Canaanite nations, and settle their land in fulfillment of God’s promises to Abraham. First, however, God would renew his covenant with them.
Moses was aware that he would die before leading his people to their destination. However, prior to his death, he needed to remind the people of the terms of the covenant that God had revealed to him. The initial covenant, suitable for Israel while en route to Canaan, had been made thirty-eight years earlier at Sinai (Exod 19–24). Now, in anticipation of Israel’s establishment as a settled community, the original covenant must be restated and enlarged. The book of Deuteronomy is this restatement.
Deuteronomy is Moses’ farewell address to the tribes he had served as prophetic leader. The book includes narratives, exhortations, warnings, instructions, and promises of blessing for Israel’s faithfulness. Using elements common to covenants between nations, Deuteronomy is composed as a treaty text. It is similar to other treaties known from ancient Near Eastern sources, particularly from Hittite archives. Moses, clearly aware of the patterns used in typical covenants, communicates God’s purposes to Israel in a familiar literary and legal form.
Paying careful attention to the formal structures of Deuteronomy yields a great deal of insight into the theological nature of the book. As a covenant text, it underscores the seriousness of God’s promises and of Israel’s need (as the covenant partner) to obey the terms of the treaty so that God can fulfill his promises. As a farewell speech, Deuteronomy is rooted in a historical and geographical setting.
The following outline reflects the analysis of Deuteronomy as a covenant document:
Deut 1:1-5 Preamble to the covenant
Deut 1:6–4:49 Historical prologue
Deut 5:1–26:15 Stipulations of the covenant
Deut 26:16–29:1 Blessings for obedience and curses for disobedience
Deut 29:2–30:20 Review of the covenant and choice between life and death
Deut 31:1-29 Deposit of the text of the covenant
Deut 31:30–32:43 Witnesses of the covenant
The outline embedded in the Bible text reflects Deuteronomy’s structure both as a covenant text and as a farewell speech and series of sermons.
Long-standing Jewish and Christian tradition holds that Moses wrote Deuteronomy. Deut 1:1 also asserts that Moses is the book’s author. Both the OT and NT acknowledge Moses’ authorship of the book (see Josh 1:7-8; Judg 1:20; 3:4; 1 Kgs 2:3; 2 Kgs 14:6; 2 Chr 25:4; Ezra 3:2; Matt 19:7; Mark 12:19; Luke 20:28; Acts 3:22; Rom 10:19; 1 Cor 9:9).
However, during the past 200 years, critical scholars have denied that Moses wrote Deuteronomy. Some scholars identify Deuteronomy as the scroll found in the Temple in King Josiah’s time (about 621 BC; see 2 Kgs 22:8-20); consequently, critical scholars date Deuteronomy to that time, and attribute editorial additions as late as the period following the Exile (538 BC and later).
Archaeologists have discovered Hittite treaty texts originating in the Late Bronze Age (1500–1200 BC), about the time of Moses. These texts provide support for an early authorship of Deuteronomy (see “Literary Form,” below). Some scholars compare Deuteronomy to seventh-century Assyrian treaty texts that are closer to Josiah’s time. However, the Hittite texts are more similar to Deuteronomy in structure and content than the Assyrian examples, making it less likely that Deuteronomy was written during the later period.
In short, there is no good reason to deny that Moses wrote the book shortly before his death. The account of his death (Deut 34:5-12) was added later. See further “Introduction to the Pentateuch: Authorship.”
Deuteronomy’s structure resembles other treaty texts drawn up between various nations in the period of the Exodus and the conquest. Some of these were treaties between equals, while others were suzerain-vassal treaties. In a suzerain-vassal treaty, the superior party (the suzerain, or “Great King”) would make demands of and offer promises to subject peoples (the vassals) in return for their unqualified obedience.
Deuteronomy is a suzerain-vassal treaty between God and Israel. God called the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt to be his servant people. He took the lead in the relationship, determined the terms for maintaining the treaty, and offered promises of blessing if Israel obeyed and judgment if the nation disobeyed.
Moses’ use of the suzerain-vassal treaty format makes it clear that Deuteronomy is a covenant text. God chose Israel to be his special people. It was not the covenant that made them so, for they were already identified as God’s people before the Exodus (Exod 4:22-23). Rather, the text of the covenant regulated their behavior. By reviewing the covenant with this generation of Israelites, Moses ensured that they would enter the Promised Land as God’s covenant people.
The covenant is the leading theme of Deuteronomy—and perhaps of the entire OT. The covenant provided the means for the Lord to unite himself to Israel. The covenant stated that the Lord was ancient Israel’s God, Israel was God’s people, and the relationship between them would achieve God’s redemptive purposes. This awesome privilege also included profound responsibility. Could Israel conduct itself in a manner that would guarantee the success of its mission? What standards of behavior would enable them to fulfill their heavenly calling?
Israel had the freedom to accept or reject God’s covenant (Exod 19:7-8). Once accepted, the blessings and curses within the covenant depended on whether Israel obeyed or disobeyed (Deut 28:1-6, 15-19). God promised that even disobedience could be overcome if the nation would repent, return, and be restored to covenant fellowship (Deut 30:1-10; Lev 26:40-45).
This covenant did not make Israel God’s people; God’s promise of a national offspring to Abraham had already done that (Gen 17:1-8). This document reiterated the covenant made at Sinai, where Israel was given the privilege of serving the Lord as a kingdom of priests (Exod 19:4-6). If Israel could remain faithful to its role as a “kingdom of priests and my holy nation,” it would direct God’s blessings to the whole world.
The Israelites were the unique people of God. God made promises to the nation’s forefathers that he fulfilled in the Exodus and in creating the nation. He was ready to solidify Israel in the conquest of the Promised Land and move the nation forward until his purposes were complete. The book of Deuteronomy established the principles of faithful life and ministry that would ensure Israel’s ongoing relationship with God in achieving those objectives. Israel had the indescribable honor of partnering with Almighty God to bring about his plan for the ages.